Neurophysiological theories of hypnosis suggest that high hypnotizables have better executive function than weak hypnotizables and can therefore use their attention in different ways. Gruzelier (1998) presented a model of hypnosis characterized by changes in brain function. The process of hypnosis is described in three stages, each with its own characteristic pattern of brain activity. Gruzelier`s neurophysiological report points out that changes in the way the attention control system works in hynosis make the subject more suggestive. Hypnotic phenomena are generated by a dissociation of high-level control systems. How does hypnosis work? Two theories attempt to answer this question: one theory considers hypnosis as a dissociation and the other theory considers it as the fulfillment of a social role. According to the dissociation view, hypnosis is indeed a dissociated state of consciousness, similar to our previous example, where you can lead to work, but you are little aware of the driving process because your attention is focused on something else. This theory is supported by Ernest Hilgard`s research on hypnosis and pain. In Hilgard`s experiments, he put the participants in a state of hypnosis and placed their arms in icy water. Participants were told that they would not feel any pain, but that they could press a button if they did; Although they reported feeling no pain, they actually pressed the button, suggesting a dissociation of consciousness in the hypnotic state (Hilgard & Hilgard, 1994).
Daydream by Paul César Helleu: Reverie is a mild form of dissociation in which a person experiences a short-term detachment from the immediate environment. Meditation is the act of focusing on a single goal (such as breathing or a repeated sound) to increase awareness of the moment. While hypnosis is usually performed through the interaction of a therapist and the person being treated, a person can meditate alone. Often, however, people who want to learn to meditate receive training in techniques to achieve a meditative state. A meditative state, as shown by the EEG recordings of newly practicing meditators, is not in itself an altered state of consciousness; However, the brainwave patterns shown by experienced meditators may represent a unique state of consciousness (Fell, Axmacher, & Haupt, 2010). For more than a century, scientists and clinicians have been proposing mechanisms to explain the phenomenon associated with hypnosis. The most important theories of hypnosis, historical and current, are presented here. For new models, some knowledge of cognitive psychology is useful.
In psychology, most current models of the functioning of the mind, called « executive function, » use the concept of a system of executive control (Norman & Shallice, 1980, 1986) (a description of what is meant by executive control is given on this page). Meditative techniques have their roots in religious practices, but their use has gained popularity among alternative medicine practitioners. Research shows that meditation can help lower blood pressure, and the American Heart Association suggests that meditation could be used in conjunction with more traditional treatments as a way to treat high blood pressure, although there is not enough data to recommend (Brook et al., 2013). Like hypnosis, meditation also shows promising stress management, sleep quality (Caldwell, Harrison, Adams, Quin & Greeson, 2010), treatment of mood and anxiety disorders (Chen et al., 2013; Freeman et al., 2010; Vøllestad, Nielsen and Nielsen, 2012) and pain therapy (Reiner, Tibi and Lipsitz, 2013). Some scientists are working to determine whether the power of suggestion can influence cognitive processes such as learning hypnosis in educational institutions (Wark, 2011). In addition, there is evidence that hypnosis can alter processes that were once thought to be automatic and outside the realm of voluntary control, such as reading (Lifshitz, Aubert Bonn, Fischer, Kashem, & Raz, 2013; Raz, Shapiro, Fan and Posner, 2002). However, it should be noted that others have suggested that the automation of these processes remains intact (Augustinova & Ferrand, 2012). A key debate in hypnosis throughout the twentieth century has been between « state » and « non-state » theories, the characteristics of these types of theories are given below. Recently, attempts have been made to integrate the ideas of the two positions. Socio-cognitive theories form the « non-state » end of the « state-non-state debate ». State theories hold that processes such as « oppression » or « dissociation » work when subjects receive a proposal, while non-state theories view subjects as active « executors » and observe the proposed effect as a staging rather than an event (Spanos et al., 1980).
An extension of social learning theory. How a participant expects suggestions to change their subjective experience leads to a change in experience and can cause unintended reactions. An important factor to consider when examining socio-cognitive hypnosis theories of this type is that they do not imply that subjects always « simulate » or do not actually undergo an involuntary hypnotic response. Although these models use terms such as « role staging » or « self-expression, » they still strongly agree with the idea that hypnotized participants have unusual experiences. (See an elaboration of this point on the page State / Non-State) Hypnosis is a state of extreme concentration and attention in which minimal attention is paid to external stimuli. In the therapeutic setting, a clinician can use relaxation and suggestion to change a patient`s thoughts and perceptions. Hypnosis has also been used to extract information believed to be buried deep in someone`s memory. For people who are particularly open to the power of suggestion, hypnosis can prove to be a very effective technique, and brain imaging studies have shown that hypnotic states are associated with overall changes in brain function (Del Casale et al., 2012; Guldenmund, Vanhaudenhuyse, Boly, Laureys & Soddu, 2012).
Hilgard`s theory was inspired by his experiments with the « hidden observer » phenomenon, in which a « hidden part » of a subject`s mind experiencing hypnotic pain relief could be encouraged to produce accounts of the « true » experience of pain. The idea that the hidden observer demonstrates the presence of constructive and unconscious executive systems in hypnosis is a controversial term (e.g., Heap et al., 2004; Kirsch and Lynn, 1998). These steps are conducive to openness to the increased suggestibility of hypnosis. Kirsch and Lynn (1997) suggest that subjects in a hypnotic situation have a generalized expectation of reaction (a belief) that they will follow the instructions of hypnotists and produce behaviors that are experienced as involuntary. One consequence of this is that these subjects attribute hypnotic reactions to external causes (e.g. the hypnotist) and experience them as involuntary. According to this theory, hypnotic reactions are triggered by the same mechanisms as voluntary reactions, the difference lies in the way the behaviors are experienced. How exactly does a hypnotist bring a participant into a state of hypnosis? Although there are variations, there are four parts that seem consistent in bringing people into the state of suggestibility associated with hypnosis (National Research Council, 1994). These components include: The cold control theory of hypnosis considers the distinction between control and consciousness in relation to Rosenthal`s HOT (Higher Order Thinking) theory 21. According to Rosenthal, we are aware of mental states by having thoughts about those states. A thought about being in a mental state is a second-order thought (SOT) because it is a mental state about a mental state (for example, « I see the cat being black »).
Third-order thoughts (TOT) are also possible by becoming aware of having a SOT (for example, « I am aware that the cat I see is black »). The cold control theory of hypnosis states that a successful response to hypnotic suggestions can be achieved by forming an intention to perform the required cognitive action or activity without training hots on the intent of that action that would normally accompany the thoughtful execution of the action. Hilgard`s neo-dissociation theory of hypnosis is a classical « state theory ». He suggests that hypnotic phenomena are generated by dissociation within high-level control systems. Essentially, hypnotic induction is said to divide the functioning of the executive control system (ECS) into different flows. Part of the ECS functions normally, but is unable to present itself in conscious consciousness due to the presence of an « amnesic barrier ». Hypnotic suggestions affect the dissociated part of the ECS and the subject is aware of the results of the proposals but is not aware of the process by which they were created. The socio-cognitive theory of hypnosis holds that the experience of lack of ease in hypnosis results from participants` motivated tendencies to interpret hypnotic suggestions in such a way that they do not require planning and active effort (i.e., the experience of ease stems from an error of attribution). The attribution of the will depends on the type of response set that has been put in place, and if there is a hypnotic set of responses, the will is assigned externally. Simply put, hypnosis occurs effortlessly when individuals expect things to be effortless and « decide » (more or less consciously) to respond with suggestions.
